1. Field
The present invention concerns apparatuses and methods for rapid fractionation of blood into erythrocyte, plasma and platelet fractions. Each fraction may be put to use or returned to the blood donor. Useful high concentration platelet fractions have platelet concentrations in excess of two times the concentration in anti-coagulated whole blood before processing of greater than 2×106 platelet/μL. The invention has particular value for rapid preparation of autologous concentrated platelet fractions to help or speed healing.
2. Description of the Prior Art
Blood may be fractionated and the different fractions of the blood used for different medical needs. For instance, anemia (low erythrocyte levels) may be treated with infusions of erythrocytes. Thrombocytopenia (low thrombocyte (platelet) levels) may be treated with infusions of platelet concentrate.
Under the influence of gravity or centrifugal force, blood spontaneously sediments into three layers. At equilibrium the top, low-density layer is a straw-colored clear fluid called plasma. Plasma is a water solution of salts, metabolites, peptides, and many proteins ranging from small (insulin) to very large (complement components). Plasma per se has limited use in medicine but may be further fractionated to yield proteins used, for instance, to treat hemophilia (factor VIII) or as a hemostatic agent (fibrinogen).
The bottom, high-density layer is a deep red viscous fluid comprising anuclear red blood cells (erythrocytes) specialized for oxygen transport. The red color is imparted by a high concentration of chelated iron or heme that is responsible for the erythrocytes high specific gravity. Packed erythrocytes, matched for blood type, are useful for treatment of anemia caused by, e.g., bleeding. The relative volume of whole blood that consists of erythrocytes is called the hematocrit, and in normal human beings can range from about 38% to about 54%.
The intermediate layer is the smallest, appearing as a thin white band on top the erythrocyte layer and below the plasma, and is called the buffy coat. The buffy coat itself has two major components, nucleated leukocytes (white blood cells) and anuclear smaller bodies called platelets (or thrombocytes). Leukocytes confer immunity and contribute to debris scavenging. Platelets seal ruptures in the blood vessels to stop bleeding and deliver growth and wound healing factors to the wound site.
Extraction of Platelets
Extraction of platelets from whole blood has been reviewed (Pietersz 2000). In transfusion medicine the intention is to transfuse each patient only with the component that is needed, so the aim of blood centers is to manufacture blood components as pure as possible, that is with the least contaminating cells. Platelets are the most difficult to isolate and purify. Based on data from Pietersz (2000), even under optimal conditions of centrifugation (long time at low speed), a significant fraction of platelets remain trapped within the sedimented erythrocytes.
Through the years centrifugation methods have been developed to separate the platelets from red blood cells, white blood cells and plasma. These methods separate the components both in plastic bag systems and in apheresis devices, and more recently in specialized apparatuses. Historically most platelet concentrates have been harvested from donors and used to treat thrombocytopenia, i.e., allogenically. More recently the platelet concentrates have been used to promote wound healing, and the use of autologous platelet concentrates (sequestration of platelets for treatment of the platelet donor) has grown.
The sedimentation of the various blood cells and plasma is based on the different specific gravity of the cells and the viscosity of the medium. This may be accelerated by centrifugation according approximately to the Svedberg equation:V=((2/9)ω2R(dcells−dplasma)r2)/ηt where    V=sedimentation velocity,    ω=angular velocity of rotation,    R=radial distance of the blood cells to the center of the rotor,    d=specific gravity,    r=radius of the blood cells,    ηt=viscosity of the medium at a temperature of t° C.Characteristics of blood components are shown in the table.
DiameterSpecific gravityComponent(μm)(g/ml)DeformabilityAdhesionRed cells5.41.100+++−Granulocytes9.61.085+++Lymphocytes7.61.070±±Monocytes11.21.063±+Platelets3.21.058±+++PlasmaNA1.026NANAAdditiveNA1.007NANAsolution
When sedimented to equilibrium, the component with the highest specific gravity (density) eventually sediments to the bottom, and the lightest rises to the top. But the rate at which the components sediment is governed roughly by the Svedberg equation; the sedimentation rate is proportional to the square of the size of the component. In other words, at first larger components such as white cells sediment much faster than smaller components such as platelets; but eventually the layering of components is dominated by density.
Soft Spin Centrifugation
When whole blood is centrifuged at a low speed (up to 1,000 g) for a short time (two to four minutes) white cells sediment faster than red cells and both sediment much faster than platelets (per Svedberg equation above). At higher speeds the same distribution is obtained in a shorter time. This produces layers of blood components that are not cleanly separated and consist of (1) plasma containing the majority of the suspended platelets and a minor amount of white cells and red cells, and (2) below that a thick layer of red cells mixed with the majority of the white cells and some platelets. The method of harvesting platelet-rich plasma (PRP) from whole blood is based on this principle. The term “platelet-rich” is used for this component because most of the platelets in the whole blood are in the plasma following slow centrifugation so the concentration of platelets in the plasma has increased. Centrifugal sedimentation that takes the fractionation only as far as separation into packed erythrocytes and PRP is called a “soft spin”. “Soft spin” is used herein to describe centrifugation conditions under which erythrocytes are sedimented but platelets remain in suspension. “Hard spin” is used herein to describe centrifugation conditions under which erythrocytes sediment and platelets sediment in a layer immediately above the layer of erythrocytes.
Two Spin Patelet Separation
Following a soft spin, the PRP can removed to a separate container from the erythrocyte layer, and in a second centrifugation step, the PRP may be fractioned into platelet-poor plasma (PPP) and platelet concentrate (PC). In the second spin the platelets are usually centrifuged to a pellet to be re-suspended later in a small amount of plasma.
In the most common method for PRP preparation, the centrifugation of whole blood for 2 to 4 min at 1,000 g to 2,500 g results in PRP containing the majority of the platelets. After the centrifugation of a unit (450 ml) of whole blood in a 3-bag system the PRP is transferred to an empty satellite bag and next given a hard spin to sediment the platelets and yield substantially cell-free plasma. Most of the platelet poor plasma (PPP) is removed except for about 50 ml and the pellet of platelets is loosened and mixed with this supernatant. Optionally one can remove about all plasma and reconstitute with additive solution. To allow aggregated platelets to recover the mixture is given a rest of one to two hours before platelets are again re-suspended and then stored on an agitator.
It is believed that centrifugation can damage the platelets by sedimenting the platelets against a solid, non-physiological surface. The packing onto such a surface induces partial activation and may cause physiological damage, producing “distressed” platelets which partially disintegrate upon resuspension.
Hard Spin Centrifugation
If the centrifugation is continued at a low speed the white cells will sediment on top of the red cells whereas the platelets will remain suspended in the plasma. Only after extended low speed centrifugation will the platelets also sediment on top of the red cells.
Experiments with a blood processor (deWit, 1975) showed that centrifugation at a high speed (2,000 g-3,000 g) produces a similar pattern of cell separation in a shorter time. Initially the cells separate according to size, i.e., white cells sediment faster than red cells and platelets remain in the plasma. Soon the red cells get ‘packed’ on each other squeezing out plasma and white cells. Because of their lower density, white cells and platelets are pushed upwards to the interface of red cells and plasma whereas the platelets in the upper plasma layer will sediment on top of this interface, provided the centrifugal force is sufficiently high and sedimentation time is sufficiently long. Plasma, platelets, white cells and red cells will finally be layered according to their density. Platelets sedimented atop a layer of red cells are less activated than those isolated by the “two spin” technique.
Platelet Yields and Centrifuge Speed
The so called “buffy coat” consists of the layers of platelets and white cells (leukocytes) but is usually harvested along with the lower part of the plasma layer and the upper layer of the red cell mass. In this application, all references to the platelet layer are intended to mean the platelet layer if no leukocytes are present or to the buffy coat layer when leucocytes are present mixed with the platelets.
The process and method of this invention can accomplish platelet isolation and collection with a wide range including both low and high centrifugation forces. Effective separation does not require a high g centrifugation; good results have been obtained with 600 g-1000 g or low speed centrifugation. High speed centrifugation refers to centrifugal forces greater than 2000 g. Experiments have shown that long (30-45 min) centrifugation at a force of about 700 g gives the most complete separation of whole blood into components. Such long times are not considered to be practical and economical for intra-operative autologous applications. For buffy coat separation one can spin 7 to 10 min at about 3,000 g to enable separation of whole blood into cell-free plasma, a buffy coat containing 60-70% of the white cells and 70-80% of the platelets, and red cells contaminated with approximately 30% of the white cells and 10-20% of the platelets.
Apheresis—Single Spin Platelet Separation
Specialized apparatuses have been invented to perform apheresis, the separation of platelets from blood while reinfusing the other components into the donor. This permits donors to give more platelets than possible with the two-step centrifugation because loss of erythrocytes limits the volume of blood that blood donors may give. Typically, a two to three hour apheresis procedure will produce a platelet product containing 3×1011 platelets, equivalent to 6 or more conventional blood donations.
The first demonstration of a single-step method for preparation of platelet concentrates was reported more than 25 years ago (deWit 1975). In this first attempt complete separation between the different cellular components could not be achieved, at least not in one step because of considerable overlap in the presence of platelets, leukocytes and erythrocytes in the fractions collected after different centrifugation times and speed. Many improved apheresis methods and devices have been developed and are described in cited patents.
In apheresis methods drawn blood is immediately mixed with an anticoagulant, centrifuged (Haemonetics, Baxter CS 3000 and Amicus, Cobe Spectra, Fresenius AS 104, AS 204), and separated into components according to density. The buffy coat is recognized by eye or by optical sensors and the platelet-rich layer is directed to a separate bag. Software of the various manufacturers has been adjusted to manufacture platelet concentrates without white cell contamination, some requiring additional filtration after the platelet harvest, others having special techniques or tools built into the apheresis systems.
Leukoreduction
The PC's resulting from both laboratory two spin processing and apheresis methods contain donor leukocytes. It was shown the white cells negatively affect platelet storage and may induce adverse effects after transfusion due to cytokine formation. Removal of leukocytes (leukoreduction) from PRP and PC is a major problem because non-self leukocytes (allogeneic leukocytes) and the cytokines they produce can cause a violent reaction by the recipient's leukocytes. In 1999 the FDA Blood Product Advisory Committee recommended routine leukoreduction of all non-leukocytes components in the US (Holme 2000). Therefore, much of the prior art focuses on leukoreduction of platelet concentrates because non-autologous leukocytes excite deleterious immune reactions. Since the process of this invention provides a convenient way to quickly harvest autologous platelets from the patient's blood, immune reactions are not a risk, and the presence of leukocytes is of little or no concern.
Autologous Platelets
Autologous platelets have been shown to have advantages in comparison with allogeneic platelets. Concerns about disease transmission and immunogenic reactions, which are associated with allogeneic or xenogeneic preparation, are minimized. The fact that an autologous preparation is prepared at the time of surgery reduces the risks associated with mislabeling a sample, which might occur through a laboratory system. The use of autologous platelets obviates the requirement for time-consuming screening tests. Platelet activation has less time to develop. Unlike stored platelets which become partially activated, the activation status of autologous platelets, when first produced, was found to be similar to that in the original whole blood (Crawther 2000).
Platelets may be used as an adjunct for wound healing. Knighton describes applying autologous platelet releasate to wounds to enhance healing (Knighton 1986). More recent studies use platelets themselves. Marx describes platelet preparations that dramatically accelerate bone healing following dental implant procedures (Marx 1998). Other researchers make similar claims for other medical procedures, for instance, treatment of macular holes (Gehring 1999), improved healing in cosmetic surgery (Man 2001), and use for hemostasis (Oz 1992).
In recent years devices originally invented to wash erythrocytes from shed blood (autotransfusion devices) have been adapted to permit separation of autologous platelets, usually intraoperatively. This procedure has the important advantage that autologous leukocytes cause no reaction from patient leukocytes because they are self leukocytes, so removal of leukocytes from PC's is no longer important. For example, sequestration of PRP reduces allogeneic transfusion in cardiac surgery (Stover 2000). Autotransfusion devices from a variety of manufacturers (e.g., ElectroMedics 500) can be used to make autologous platelet preparations with high platelet concentrations.
The autotransfusion equipment used to make autologous platelet concentrates requires a skilled operator and considerable time and expense. Most devices require a large prime volume of blood. The ElectroMedics 500 withdraws 400 to 450 ml of autologous whole blood through a central venous catheter placed during surgery. As it withdraws the blood the separator adds citrate phosphate dextrose (CPD) to achieve anticoagulation. The blood is then centrifuged into its three basic components. The red blood cell layer forms at the lowest level, the platelet concentrate layer in a middle level, and the PPP layer at the top. The cell separator incrementally separates each layer, from the less dense to the more dense; therefore it separates PPP first (about 200 ml) and PC second (about 70 ml), leaving the residual red blood cells (about 180 ml). Once the PPP is removed, the centrifuge speed is lowered to 2400 RPM to allow for a precise separation of the PC from the red blood cells. In fact, the platelets most recently synthesized, and therefore of the greatest activity, are larger and mix with the upper 1 mm of red blood cells, so that this layer is included in the PRP product imparting a red tint.
Recently devices have been introduced which are specifically designed to make autologous platelet concentrates intraoperatively; for example the SmartPReP Autologous Platelet Concentrate System (Harvest Autologous Hemobiologics, Norwell, Mass.). It requires 90 to 180 cc of blood versus the 500 cc of blood used in most autotransfusion machines. In addition two other products are near market introduction, The PlasmaSeal device (PlasmaSeal, San Francisco, Calif.) and The Platelet Concentrate Collection System (Implant Innovations, Inc., Palm Beach Gardens, Fla.). While these devices have somewhat reduced the cost and the time required, a skilled operator is required for the devices introduced to the market to date. Therefore, there remains a need for simple and fast automated methods and devices for making platelet concentrates.